Pramana: An Introductory Explanation

What are the valid Sources of Knowledge?

One of the fundamental questions asked in Dharmika philosophy is, what are the valid sources of knowledge? These sources of knowledge are called the Pramana (Devanagri — प्रमाण, Pronounced — Pramāṇa). There are six Pramana in total; however, not every school or darshana accepts all of them. This essay explains the six Pramana and lists which school accepts which Pramana.

Pratyaksa — प्रत्यक्षा

Pratyaksa means perception. Observations made using the senses fall under this Pramana. For example, if you see a ball, you may use your senses to conclude that it has a round form.

Anumāṇa — अनुमान

Anumāṇa is inference. It is conclusions drawn from the analysis and compartmentalization of observations. For example, if you see vapors rising from tea, you may infer that the tea is hot.

Śabda — शब्द

Śabda means words, and it can be divided into two parts — Vaidkia, and Laukika. Vaidika Śabda is testimony from texts, and scriptures, specifically the Vedas. Laukika is personal testimony, or testimony from a person with authority or expertise on a topic. An example of Laukika Śabda is a doctor writing a prescription for a patient.

Upamāṇa — उपमान

Upamāṇa is comparison or analogy. For example, if one wishes to understand Grahatva (gravity), they may use an analogy. Imagine a sheet of fabric, it represents Dik and Kala (space and time). Now lets place a ball in that fabric, this ball represents a Graha (planet.) The ball causes the fabric to bend around it. If we were to place a less dense ball next to the first ball, the new ball will roll towards the first ball and fall into the bend created by the first ball. This comparison represents how Grahatva works (at least the current, and Vaiśeṣika understanding.)

Arthāpatti — अर्थापत्ति

Arthāpatti is postulation. The best way to explain this is by example. Raj loves to eat food. Raj does not eat during the day. Thus, using Arthāpatti one can conclude that Raj eats at night.

Anupalabdi/Abhava — अनुपलब्दि/अभाव

Anupalabdi/Abhava mean non-existence, non-perception, and cognitive proof. Here is an example of Anupalabdi, Raj grabs a glass and notices it has no water, he states, “there is no water in this glass.” This statement is an example of Anupalabdi.

Future essays will cover all of these Pramana’s proofs, arguments against proofs, and sub-categories within each Pramana.

Here is a list of every major Darshana, which Pramana they accept. Ājīvika is missing here as very little is known about this Darshana, and enquiries into its Pramana were inconclusive.

Mīmāṃsā/Vedānta:
Pratyakṣa (perception)
Anumāṇa (inference)
Śabda (word, testimony)
Upamāṇa (comparison, analogy)
Arthāpatti (postulation, presumption)
Anupalabdi, Abhava (non-perception, cognitive proof using non-existence)

Nyāya:
Pratyakṣa (perception)
Anumāṇa (inference)
Upamāṇa (comparison, analogy)
Śabda (word, testimony)

Sāṅkhya/Yoga/Buddhadhātu/Jain/Vaiśeṣika:
Pratyakṣa (perception)
Anumāṇa (inference)
Śabda (word, testimony)

Lokāyata:
Pratyakṣa (perception)